Skin is one of the most frequently involved organs in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and mucocutaneous manifestations may be one of the earliest markers of AIDS. The prevalence of cutaneous abnormalities in HIV approaches nearly 90%. Mucocutaneous manifestations may also act as a prognostic marker of HIV infection. Children are increasingly being affected by HIV infection and it is important to realize the presence of the infection early in the disease process as their immune status is not mature enough to handle the stress of various infections. Skin manifestations can serve as early markers and prognostic indicators of HIV infection. This review highlights the epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, and the mucocutaneous manifestations of HIV infection in children.

Infantile hemangiomas (IH) are neoplastic proliferations of endothelial cells, characterized by a period of growth after birth, and eventual spontaneous involution. The course can be uneventful, culminating in spontaneous resolution; or it may be marked by complications such as bleeding; ulceration; infection; visual, feeding and breathing compromise; cosmetic and life-threatening complications such as congestive heart failure. Recognition of associated syndromes and impending complications of hemangiomas is of utmost importance. Great advances have taken place in the nomenclature, pathogenesis, immunohistochemistry, diagnostic workup and management of hemangiomas in the recent years. This article reviews current advances in the understanding of the pathogenesis, diagnostic tools, medical and surgical modalities of treatment for infantile hemangiomas.

Bacterial skin infections in children vary widely clinically, starting from mild superficial folliculitis to deep necrotizing fasciitis. The causative organisms are mostly Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus, with occasional involvement of Gram-negative organisms. Treatment of even the milder forms of bacterial skin infections is of importance because of the long-term morbidity associated with them. However, because of global emergence of resistant strains of bacteria, treatment of these conditions is becoming increasingly difficult. The current antibacterial resistance patterns in organisms causing skin and soft tissue infections and the problems encountered in their management in children have been discussed.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in children are not uncommon in India, though systematic epidemiological studies to determine the exact prevalence are not available. STDs in children can be acquired via sexual route or, uncommonly, via non-sexual route such as accidental inoculation by a diseased individual. Neonatal infections are almost always acquired intrauterine or during delivery. Voluntary indulgence in sexual activity is also an important factor in acquisition of STDs in childhood. Sexual abuse and sex trafficking remain the important problems in India. Surveys indicate that nearly half of the children are sexually abused. Most at risk children are street-based, homeless or those living in or near brothels. Last two decades have shown an increase in the prevalence of STDs in children, though most of the data is from northern part of the country and from major hospitals. However, due to better availability of antenatal care to majority of women, cases of congenital syphilis have declined consistently over the past two-three decades. Other bacterial STDs are also on decline. On the other hand, viral STDs such as genital herpes and anogenital warts are increasing. This reflects trends of STDs in the adult population. Concomitant HIV infection is uncommon in children. Comprehensive sex education, stringent laws to prevent sex trafficking and child sexual abuse, and antenatal screening of all the women can reduce the prevalence of STDs in children.

Cutaneous tuberculosis continues to be a significant medical problem even with the advent of highly effective antituberculous drugs. It constitutes about 1.5% of all extra pulmonary tuberculosis. The prevalence in children varies from 18 to 54% in India. There is no gender predilection and the infection occurs with increased frequency in 10-14 year age group. Intrafamilial source of TB has been observed very frequently. A concomitant TB lymphadenitis is most common while involvement of other systemic organs like lung, bone and abdomen has also been observed. Protective efficacy of BCG is debatable and not yet fully defined. Of all the clinical types, scrofuloderma (SFD) is the most commonly encountered variant followed by lupus vulgaris (LV) and tuberculosis verrucosa cutis (TBVC). Lichen scrofulosorum (LS) is generally found to be associated with systemic TB focus in about 72% of cases. The impact of HIV on childhood cutaneous TB seems to be minimal. Similar to adults, the diagnosis of cutaneous tuberculosis relies mainly on histopathology, culture on LJ medium or radiometric BACTEC 460 TB culture system and PCR. In addition Mantoux positivity and a positive therapeutic trial with anti-tubercular drugs may be a good pointer to tubercular infection. A thorough clinical evaluation and exhaustive investigations to pin-point associated systemic focus is advocated as the latter has an impact on the duration of treatment. Cutaneous TB in children is treated as per the recommendations of therapy for extrapulmonary TB.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic relapsing eczematous skin disease characterized by pruritus and inflammation and accompanied by cutaneous physiological dysfunction, with a majority of the patients having a personal or family history of "atopic diathesis." The term "atopic diathesis" refers to the presence of allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma or AD. The universal occurrence of AD is no longer debated. However, published material about its natural history, etiopathogenesis, epidemiology, clinical patterns and management leave a lot to be known in the Indian scenario. In the present write-up, we will try to explore the wealth of knowledge about the disease available in our country and try to unfurl the complex interplay of different factors that are implicated for the development of this condition. The diagnosis of AD is based on a constellation of signs and symptoms. There is no laboratory "gold standard" for the diagnosis of AD. In a majority of the cases, the diagnosis is quite easy. Topical corticosteroids form the mainstay of topical treatment and, along with emollient, are able to control the condition in more than 80% of the cases. However, as use of long-term topical corticosteroid has the potential to produce local and systemic adverse effects, topical tacrolimus has come up as a useful molecule for the long-term control of the disease.

Allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) in children, until recently, was considered rare. ACD was considered as a disorder of the adult population and children were thought to be spared due to a lack of exposure to potential allergens and an immature immune system. Prevalence of ACD to even the most common allergens in children, like poison ivy and parthenium, is relatively rare as compared to adults. However, there is now growing evidence of contact sensitization of the pediatric population, and it begins right from early childhood, including 1-week-old neonates. Vaccinations, piercing, topical medicaments and cosmetics in younger patients are potential exposures for sensitization. Nickel is the most common sensitizer in almost all studies pertaining to pediatric contact dermatitis. Other common allergens reported are cobalt, fragrance mix, rubber, lanolin, thiomersol, neomycin, gold, mercapto mix, balsum of Peru and colophony. Different factors like age, sex, atopy, social and cultural practices, habit of parents and caregivers and geographic changes affect the patterns of ACD and their variable clinical presentation. Patch testing should be considered not only in children with lesions of a morphology suggestive of ACD, but in any child with dermatitis that is difficult to control.

The concept of phototherapy and photochemotherapy is not new, and sophisticated ultraviolet (UV) treatment modalities are available for almost three decades. However, phototherapy has not been used in children as extensively as in adults, probably due to long-term safety concerns. Photochemotherapy (psoralen plus UVA) is not considered to be safe in the younger age group. UV therapies can be useful treatment options for children with selected dermatological conditions provided they are used under carefully controlled conditions. Presently there is insufficient data available to provide recommendations regarding the safe maximum dose and duration of phototherapy in children. Developments of new UV delivery systems and devices are aimed at improving the safety and efficacy of phototherapy. In this review, we discuss the published literature on phototherapy and photochemotherapy in children, drawbacks of their use in pediatric population and future prospects.

Background: Tinea capitis (TC) is a common superficial fungal infection seen predominantly in children. The etiological factors vary from one region to the other. The clinical and microbiological characteristics of the same were studied in patients up to the age of 12 years seen at a pediatric superspeciality hospital in New Delhi, India. Aims: To delineate the various patterns of TC observed in North India and to assess for any correlation between the clinical, microscopic and microbiologic findings in the patients seen. Also, to identify the common fungal species responsible for producing TC in North India. Methods: Clinical morphology and KOH findings were studied in 214 patients with the suspected diagnosis of TC. Fungal culture were also performed for all the cases. An attempt was made to evaluate any correlation among the clinical, microscopic and etiological findings. The epidemiological factors associated with the disease were also assessed. Results: TC was found to be most common in the 8-10-year age group, with noninflmmatory TC being the more common type (56.5%). A mixed morphological pattern was recorded in 10% of the cases. Microscopic examination revealed an endothrix pattern of hair invasion to be more common (41.5% cases). Again, 8.8% of the cases showed foci of both endothrix and ectothrix pattern of invasion simultaneously. Trichophyton violaceum was the most common fungal species isolated. Conclusions: In the present study, clinical morphology or KOH findings were not found to be clearly or exclusively predictive of the species involved. There was a fair degree of overlap in the clinical or microscopic patterns produced by the fungal species. Mixed patterns were observed both on clinical examination as well as on KOH examination. However, none of the specimens grew more than one fungal species.

Background: Psoralen UV-A (PUVA) is an established therapy for psoriasis, but there is a well-documenated risk of melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancer. Narrow-band Ultraviolet-B (NBUVB) therapy has a lower carcinogenic risk, has equal therapeutic potential and is considerably safe in the long term than PUVA. Aim: The aim of present study was to compare the efficacy and side-effects of PUVA and NBUVB in chronic plaque psoriasis. Methods: Sixty patients of chronic plaque psoriasis were taken up for the study and were randomly divided into two groups of 30 each. They were well matched in terms of age, sex, psoriasis extent and pretreatment psoriasis area severity index (PASI) scoring. One group was treated with twice-weekly narrow-band UV-B (TL-01) phototherapy and the other group received twice-weekly oral 8-Methoxsalen PUVA for a period of 3 months. Results: Both the groups achieved >75% reduction in the PASI score or complete clearance at the end of 3 months, but PUVA group patients required significantly fewer number of treatment sessions and fewer number of days to clear the psoriasis as compared to the NBUVB group, while the mean cumulative clearance dose and adverse effects were significantly lower in the NBUVB group. Conclusion: We concluded that PUVA group patients achieved a faster clearance, but the adverse effects were significantly lower in the NBUVB group.

Background: Skin tags (ST) are common tumors. They mainly consist of loose fibrous tissue and occur on the neck and major flexures as small, soft, pedunculated protrusions. Decrease in endocrine, hormone level and other factors are thought to play a role in the evolution of ST. Leptin is an adipocyte-derived hormone that acts as a major regulatory hormone for food intake and energy homeostasis. Leptin deficiency or resistance can result in profound obesity and diabetes in humans. A role of mast cell in the pathogenesis of ST is well recognized. Aims: To investigate the role of leptin in the pathogenesis of ST and to clarify whether there is a correlation between mast cell count and leptin level in ST. Methods: Forty-five skin biopsies were taken from 15 patients with ST. From each patient, a biopsy of a large ST (length >4 mm), a small ST (length <2 mm) and a normal skin biopsy (as a control) were taken. The samples were processed for leptin level. Skin biopsies were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and toluidine blue-uranyl nitrate metachromatic method for mast cell count was used. Results: There was a significant increased level of leptin in the ST compared to the normal skin. It was highly significant in small ST than in big ST (P = 0.0001) and it was highly significant in small and big ST compared to controls, P = 0.0001 and P = 0.001, respectively. There was a significant increase in mast cell count in the ST, which did not correlate with the increased levels of leptin. Conclusion: This is the first report to demonstrate that tissue leptin may play a role in the pathogenesis of ST. The significant increase in the levels of leptin and mast cell count in ST may indicate a possible role of adipoimmune in the benign skin growths.

Background: Pilomatricoma is a benign tumor of hair matrix differentiation and has been classically described as comprising of basaloid and shadow cells admixed with multinucleated giant cells and areas of calcification. However, there are a diverse range of histologic features this tumor displays that are often unrecognized. Aims: This study was undertaken to record the histopathologic features of pilomatricoma with an emphasis on the occurrence of other forms of differentiation. Methods: The study included all skin biopsy specimens over a 13-year period from 1995 to 2007 that had a histologic diagnosis of pilomatricoma. Hematoxylin and eosin-stained slides were reviewed. Results: This study included 21 cases of pilomatricoma. Supramatrical differentiation was seen in all cases and three-quarters of the cases showed matrical differentiation. Also observed in some of the cases were clear cell differentiation toward the outer root sheath, infundibular differentiation, calcification, ossification and secondary inflammation with a foreign body giant cell reaction. Epidermal induction in the form of a downward plate-like growth of the epidermis was seen in a few cases. Conclusion: Pilomatricoma, although considered a tumor of hair matrix differentiation, can show cellular evolution toward the other parts of the hair follicle, such as the outer and inner root sheaths, sebaceous and infundibular components and, therefore, can be considered a panfollicular neoplasm.

Pseudoepitheliomatous, keratotic, and micaceous balanitis is an extremely rare condition occurring over the glans in elderly characterized by silvery white plaque with mica-like crust, which can undergo malignant transformation. Herein we present a case of pseudoepitheliomatous, keratotic, and micaceous balanitis occurring in an adult male presenting as a cutaneous horn.

Waardenburg syndrome (WS) is a rare autosomally inherited and genetically heterogeneous disorder of neural crest cell development with distinct cutaneous manifestations. Based on the clinical presentations, four subtypes of the disease are recognized. A careful clinical evaluation is required to differentiate various types of WS and other associated auditory-pigmentary syndromes. We describe a case series of WS to highlight the wide spectrum of manifestations of the syndrome including a rare association.

Acroangiodermatitis (synonym pseudo-Kaposi sarcoma) is an unusual, benign condition which clinically presents as purple-colored patches, plaques or nodules, mostly on the extensor surfaces of lower extremities in patients with chronic venous insufficiency and arteriovenous malformations. It resembles aggressive conditions like Kaposi's sarcoma and requires histopathological examination for its diagnosis. We report two such cases of acroangiodermatitis. Histopathology of both the cases showed dilated capillaries in the dermis with extravasated red blood corpuscles (RBCs), hemosiderin deposits, and hyperplastic granulation tissue. Both were treated with oral antibiotics and topical steroids. The ulcers showed a good response within 2 months of treatment.

Epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV) is a rare genodermatosis characterized by a unique susceptibility to cutaneous infection by a group of phylogenetically related human papilloma viruses (HPVs). These patients show a defect in cell-mediated immunity specific toward the causative HPVs that lead to lifelong disease. The defect is usually inherited as autosomal recessive trait and presents clinically with plane warts, pityriasis versicolor-like lesions and reddish verrucous plaques. Dysplastic and malignant changes in the form of actinic keratoses, Bowen's disease and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) are common but metastasis occurs rarely. A totally effective treatment against EV is as yet highly desirable. Two siblings having autosomal dominant EV presented with multiple actinic keratoses in addition to classic lesions. One of them had also developed well-differentiated SCC over forehead with metastases to regional lymph nodes. They were treated with combination of excision of small malignant/premalignant lesions, topical 5-flurouracil and sun protection. Additionally, elective excision/grafting of large SCC was performed after chemotherapy/radiotherapy in patient with metastatic SCC. Oral acitretin (25 mg/day) was of benefit in the other patient. Overall clinicotherapeutic experience in both the patients is discussed here.

Background: Topical corticosteroids (CSs) are the mainstay of therapy in various steroid responsive dermatoses. Newer CSs are more efficacious and safer than the older ones. There is no published data on the efficacy and safety of a new steroid hydrocortisone aceponate in the Indian population. Aim: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of hydrocortisone aceponate (0.127%) lipophilic cream in the treatment of steroid responsive dermatoses in Indian patients. Methods: Four hundred and fifteen patients with clinically diagnosed steroid responsive dermatoses enrolled in this study. They were advised to apply hydrocortisone aceponate (0.127%) lipophilic cream as a thin film to all the affected areas twice daily. Cleansing was done prior to the application with either soap-free cleanser or soap (that would not affect the study result). Use of oral antihistamines and/or antibiotics was permissible. However, other oral/topical steroid use was not permitted during the study. Patients were evaluated at day 0 and at day 21. Data were recorded regarding clinical improvement and side-effects, if any. They were then analyzed to determine the efficacy and safety of the cream. Results: Physician's global evaluation of therapy showed that lesions were cleared in 82 (22.10%), excellent result in 200 (53.91%), good result in 72 (19.41%), fair response in 15 (4.04%) and no change in 2 (0.54%) patients. There was no history of exacerbation in any patient. Conclusion: The study showed that hydrocortisone aceponate (0.127%) lipophilic cream is an effective therapeutic agent with a very good safety profile in various steroid responsive dermatoses in the Indian patient population.

Progeria is a rare genetic disorder characterized by premature aging, involving the skin, bones, heart, and blood vessels. We report a 4-year-old boy who presented with clinical manifestations of progeria. He had characteristic facies, prominent eyes, scalp and leg veins, senile look, loss of scalp hair, eyebrows and eyelashes, stunted growth, and sclerodermatous changes. The present case is reported due to its rarity.

A 21-year-old male presented with numerous asymptomatic dark brown to brown black pigmented macules and barely raised plaques on the face, trunk and extremities, developing over a period of 2 year. The surface of most lesions had a velvety raised surface similar in appearance to acanthosis nigricans and a biopsy from one of the lesions showed pigmented papillomatosis. This case fulfils all the criteria for idiopathic eruptive macular pigmentation (IEMP) with papillomatosis, and the clinical appearance of acanthosis nigricans in most lesions suggests that IEMP is a form of eruptive acanthosis nigricans.

Scleromyxedema (SM) is a rare chronic progressive and highly intractable cutaneous disease with unknown etiology, affecting both genders equally between 30 and 50 years. The disease is characterized with mucin deposits in the skin and/or other organs. In fact it is a clinicopathological subset of lichen myxedematosus (LM) according to a new classification. Sclerodermiform plaques and lichenoid papules are characteristic cutaneous lesions. An elevation of IgG λ (lambda) chain exists in most cases and extracutaneous involvement occurring with variable systemic findings is also detected. Generalized form is quite difficult to treat and may even be fatal. Herein, we present a male patient with typical features of generalized papular and sclerodermoid LM variety and with benign outcome by isotretinoin.